division和classification写作手法的区别(实用英语写作技巧之二十 推展段落方法)
本文目录
- 实用英语写作技巧之二十 推展段落方法
- 实用英语写作技巧 (第16单元)
- 英语说明文的写作方法
- division and classification的区别
- dividing和division的区别
- 英语写作中,常用的八种写作手法是哪八种
- 初中英语说明文的写作方法
- division是什么意思 解析division的含义及用法
- 逻辑学问题:为什么说“一年分为四季是一个正确的划分”这句话是错误的
实用英语写作技巧之二十 推展段落方法
20.1 混合方法(Mixed Patterns) 到目前为止,我们讨论了九种推展段落方法——1)事实数据法(facts and statistics);2)叙述法(narration);3)描述法(description);4)过程分析法(process analysis);5)定义法(definition);6)举例法(examples);7)比较对比法(comparison and contrast);8)分类法(division and classification);9)因果法(cause and effect)。我们还讨论了四种组织段落的方法:1)时间顺序法(time order);2)空间顺序法(space order);3)重要性顺序法(order of importance);4)熟悉度顺序法(order of familiarity)。此外,我们还谈及一个好的段落的三个特征:1)完整性(completeness);2)统一性(unity);3)连贯性(coherence)。 我们在前面各单元的示范段落中已经发现,极少段落是仅用一种推展方法的。作者常常在段落中使用一种方法作为支配方法(dominant method),另外一种或数种作为辅助方法(supporting method)。 示范段落20-1 Man’s knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways.One of the oddest incidents occurred on January 16,1900.An angry workman broke a crocodile mummy into pieces.He wassurprised to find that the mummy had been wrapped in sheets of papyrus,the reed paper of ancient Egypt.And on the papyrus there was writing. 20.2示范段落分析 主题句:Man’s knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways. 组织段落顺序:Time order 支配推展方法:Example 辅助推展方法:Narration 示范段落20-2 There are two kinds of memory:short-term and long-term.Information stored in the long-term memory can be recalled at a later time when it is needed.The information may be kept for days or weeks.In contrast,information stored in the short-term memory is kept for only a few minutes,usually by repeating the in formation over and over. 20.3示范段落分析 主题句:There are two kinds of memory:short-term and long-term. 组织段落方法:Order of Familiarity 支配推展方法:Division and Classification 辅助推展方法:Description,Contrast Exercise 20-1 Directions:Write a paragraph on population increase,using cause and effect as the dominant method,and examples,facts or statistics as the supporting methods. Why has the world population been increasing so rapidly in the last decades?_____________________________________________________ 《 Exercise 20-2 Directions:Write a paragraph on why you chose your specialty,combining the various methods you have learned. Exercise 20-3 Directions:Write a paragraph about whether weekend homework should be abolished. Exercise 20-4 Directions:Write a paragraph about your favourite season.
实用英语写作技巧 (第16单元)
第十六单元 推展段落方法之八——分类法 16.1分类法 分类法(division and classification)是把一事物拆成几部分,表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常,作者以总类开头,然后把总类拆开,——列举部分或全部分类。 示范段落16-1 There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library.First,there are books on all subjects,both in English and in many other languages.These books are organized according to subject,title,and author in a central filing system called card catalog.Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks.Second,there are reference materials,which include encyclopedias,dictionaries,bibliographies,atlases,etc.and which generally must be used in the library itself.Third,there are periodicals—magazines,news-papers,pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in racks or which have been micro-filmed to conserve space.Like reference works,periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library. 16.2示范段落分析 主题句:There are three basic kinds of materials that can be foundin any good library. 分类词(Classifier):kinds 列举词(Listing Signals):first,second,third 分类(Categories):1.books on all subjects 2.reference materials 3.periodicals 16.2关于如何写分类段落的建议 1)依据一个原则分类 把一事物分类后,要自始至终遵循同一分类原则。在示范段落16-1,分类原则是“the kinds of materials”。 2)所分类别必须互不包容 在示范段落16-1中,属于第一类的“books on all subjects”与属于第二类的“reference materials”界线分明。反之亦然。 3)分类必须完整 如果所分类别不完整,所作的分类则徒劳无益。如上例,所分三种“materials”应包括“all materials in a library”。 4)运用熟悉度方法排列 作者经常根据该读者对所分类别的熟悉程度排列顺序。通常先讨论读者最熟悉的,然后逐步讨论不熟悉的(关于熟悉度法见第19单元)。 5)使用分类词和列举符号 有经验的作者经常使用类词介绍概类,然后使用列举符号表明概类中的各分类。在示范段落16-1中,类词是“kind”,列举符号是“first,second,third”,下面是经常使用的类词: kind,type,group,thought,way,class,part,element,factor,aspect,division,characteristic,subdivision,reasons,category,等等。 Exercise 16-1 Directions:Read the following paragraph,find out the topic sentence,the classifier,and the categories. There are three fundamental human body types—endomorphic,mesomorphic,and ectomorphic.The extreme endomorph combines heavy fat distribution and lack of bony angularity with around face,short neck,wide hips,and heavy limbs.The extreme mesomorph has a solid chest,slender waist,long torso,and relatively short,powerful arms and legs.Extreme ectomorphs are characterized by their slender bodies,short trunks,long arms and legs,long narrow hands and feet,and lack of fat. Topic Sentence:____________________________________________ Classifier:_____________ Categories:________________________________________________ Exercise 16-2 Directions:Divide the books college students often read into three kinds and describe them one by one. Exercise 16-3 Directions:Write a paragraph of division and catagory with the given topic sentence and details. Topic sentence:A language is made up of many elements Details:1.sounds 2.words 3.sentences
英语说明文的写作方法
1 .定义法(definition)
定义法也是英语说明文中常用的写作手法,特别是在对具体事物概念进行说明时经常使用。定义法的基本要素是定义句。英语中常见定义句的模式是:
被定义对象is所属类别+限制性定语
可以看出,定义句中限制性定语越详细,定义就越精确,比如:
A bat is a small mouse-like animal that flies at night and feeds on(以……为食品)fruit and insects but is not a bird.
其实,在英—英词典中,对英语单词的英文解释就是定义法的典型例子。比如,看看Longman词典对student和teacher的定义是很有意思的:A student is a person who is studying at a place of education or training. A teacher is a person who gives knowledge or skill to sb. as a profession(专业)。
2.顺序法(sequence of time,space and process)
顺序法是指按时间、空间或过程的`顺序进行说明的一种写作手法。比如按照时间顺序介绍一个科学家的生平,用空间顺序阐述逐渐开发西部的重要意义,用过程顺序法解释葡萄酒的生产过程等等。
下面这篇学生作文就是用顺序法写成的:
Coal
Coal underwent(经受)many changes before it became the bright,brittle(脆的),black substance which we now use. During ancient times(在上古时代),when the earth enjoyed a very warm and wet climate,the land was covered with large forests and big plants. As time went on,the ground changed and began to sink(下沉)a little. These very large numbers of trees and vegetables received a deposit(沉淀)of sand and clay. This layer of sand and clay pressed upon the layer beneath and prevented it from contact with air. These trees and plants received the pres sure and changed its appearance.
Generations after generations(几世纪后),as the ground kept gradually sinking,another layer of sand and clay was again deposited(积聚)above the layers already formed. A great pressure was thus exerted(作用)and the peat(泥煤)was changed into the black and brittle substance which is known as coal.
Coal is a kind of mineral which is formed by nature as above stated. It is an important industrial material and is chiefly used as fuel. It is very valuable in the industrial world. The place where coal deposit is called a coal mine(煤矿)。 In China,coal mines are largely found in the north-west part of the country. Shanxi is a famous province for producing coal. It has the most coal of China.
3.分类法(classification)
分类法是将写作对象进行分类说明的一种写作手法。比如:著名的英国哲学家弗朗西斯·培根(Francis Bacon)在其脍炙人口的《谈读书》(Of Studies)一文中就用到了分类法:
Some books are to be tasted,others to be swallowed,and some few to be chewed and digested,that is,some books are to be read only in parts,others to be read,but not curiously,and some few to be read wholly,and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy,and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments,and the meaner sort of books…
参考译文:书有可浅尝者,有可吞食者,少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之,有只须读其部分者,有只须大体涉猎者,少数则须全读,读时须全神贯注,孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读,取其所需摘要,但只限题材较次或价值不高者……
——转摘自《英汉翻译教程》(张培基等)
可见,如果能够根据具体情况,选用合适的写作手法,就可为文章增添无穷的魅力。
除了上述提到的6种展开英语说明文主题的写作方法之外,还有因果法、归纳法等其他方法。但相比之下,对于中学生来说,上述6种方法是首先值得掌握的。另外必须指出的是:在一篇文章中往往是以一种写作手法为主,同时辅以其他写作手法。有时,甚至会几种写作手法混用而不分主次。因此,必须根据具体情况,选用合适的展开主题的写作手法,才能写出优秀的英语说明文。
division and classification的区别
division .是分开的意思,有时候也可以说是分歧,可以想象一条路有多个岔路口。classification 是分类的意思,可以想象家里收纳衣物的时候会分门别类。
dividing和division的区别
dividing和division的区别:是前者是一个动词,而后者则是一个名词。
区别可以从以下例子看出:
The divisions between the various classes of society are not so sharply marked as they used to be.
现在社会上各阶级的划分不象过去那样明显了。
To be a good judge, one has to draw a clear dividing line between good and evil.
要想当一个好法官,你必须明确区分善与恶。
近义词:
section
英
n. 部分;部门;章节;区域;断面;剖面图;零件;路段;切开。
v. 划分;切开。
White lines divide the playing area into sections.
这些白线把赛区分成各个部分。
I hope someone competent will join our section.
我希望有能力的人加入本部门。
英语写作中,常用的八种写作手法是哪八种
英语写作中,常用的八种写作手法:
列举法和举例法(Listing and Exemplification)
叙述法(Narration)
因果法(Cause and Effect)
类比一对比法(Comparison and Contrast)
分类法(Classification)
定义法(Definition)
辅音
(注:多数辅音的读音与拼音差别不大,可以通过拼音来进行谐音;还有一部分辅音没有对应的拼音字体,这里我们主要是针对/θ ð ʃ ʒ/这四个辅音),其中,/θ/和/ð/这两个音标,它们并没有相近似的拼音来对应,主要是靠嘴形来记忆。
/θ/――上下牙齿咬着舌头尖,发“斯"的音;/ð/――舌头顶上牙堂发拼音z一声;/ʃ/――师;/ʒ/――牙齿闭合,舌头虚碰牙齿发拼音r一声。
初中英语说明文的写作方法
以下是 为大家整理的关于初中英语说明文的写作方法的文章,希望大家能够喜欢! 就“说明对象”而言,英语说明文可分为对“客观具体事物”的说明和对“主观抽象观念”的说明两大类,比如:对“LASER(激光)”、“Computer Problem of Year 2000(计算机2000年问题)”等等的说明都是对客观或者具体事物的说明,而“The Successful Interview(谈成功的面试)”、“How to Write Good English Composition(如何才能写好英语作文)” 等是对主观抽象观念的说明。对我们中学生朋友来说,在汉语说明文的教学中似乎比较侧重前者,即解释客观具体事物的说明文。但在英语说明文中,阐述和说明 “主观抽象观念”的说明文占了很大的比重,其中有些类似汉语中的议论文。但是无论是对“客观具体事物”的说明还是对“主观抽象观念”的阐述,英语说明文从结构上看大致可分为三个部分:第一部分一般是文章的第一段,提出文章的主题,也就是说,文章想要阐述、说明的主要内容;第二部分是文章的主体,可由若干个段落组成,对文章的主题进行展开说明;第三部分是结尾段,对文章的主题作归纳总结。从英语说明文的结构可以看出,要写好英语说明文的关键在于第二部分如何对文章主题进行展开说明。在英语中,常见的用来展开文章主题的方法有下列几种: 1.罗列法(listing) 在文章开始时提出需要说明的东西和观点,然后常用first,second,…and finally加以罗列说明。罗列法广泛地使用于各类指导性的说明文之中,下面这篇学生作文就是用罗列法写成的: Early Rising Early rising (早起) is helpful in more than one way. First, it helps to keep us fit (健康)。 We all need fresh air. But air is never so fresh as early in the morning. Besides, we can do good to our health from doing morning exercise (做早操)。 Secondly, early rising helps us in our studies. We learn more quickly in the morning, and find it easier to remember what we learn in the morning. Thirdly, early rising enables (使能够) us to plan the work of the day. We cannot work well without a good plan. Just as the plan for the year should be made in the spring, so the plan for the day should be made in the morning. Fourthly, early rising gives us enough time to get ready for our work, such as to wash our faces and hands and eat our breakfast properly. Late risers may find it very difficult to form the habit of early rising. They ought to make special efforts to do so. As the English proverb says,“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.” 罗列法经常用下列句式展开段落,我们可以注意模仿学习: There are several good reasons why we should learn a foreign language. First of all, …Secondly, …And finally, … We should try our best to plant more trees for several good reasons First of all, …Secondly, …And finally, 必须指出的是,有时罗列法并不一定有明确的first, second…等词,但文章还是以罗列论据展开的。 2.举例法(examples) 举例法是用具体的例子来说明我们要表达的意思,常用for example, for instance, still another example is…等词语引出。下面这篇学生作文就是用举例法写成的: Recreation It is impossible to keep in good health unless we take enough recreation (娱乐)。 The mind, too, needs change to make it fresh and vigorous (有活力的) There is much truth in the old saying, All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.“ There are many games which boys and girls can play after their school work is done, for instance, football, tennis, and kite-flying. Other examples of recreation are boating, fishing, gardening, cycling, walking, chess-playing, and reading. Persons who sit much at their business should take a kind of recreation that will supply their muscles (肌肉) with exercise. Those who spend most of their time in the open air and do manual work (体力活) should adopt (采纳) reading or some other quiet form of recreation. Cycling is said to be an important means of recreation, but many persons foolishly tire out themselves by cycling too much. The same may be said in regard to football. Tennis is a pleasant form of recreation. Many persons take great delight in boating. Fishing requires much patience, and there is much danger of taking cold by sitting still on a cold day too long. A good brisk (轻松) walk is one of the finest forms of exercise. For persons engaged in outdoor labor, chess-playing is another excellent form of recreation. 可以看出,举例法和罗列法有时可以结合使用:即用罗列法来列出例子,用例子充实罗列的说明。 3.比较法(comparison and contrast) 比较法是对两个对象进行比较,从而进行说明的写作手法。比较法又可细分为比较相同点(comparison)和比较不同点(contrast)两种方法,比如: From Paragraph to Essay Although they are different in length (长度), the paragraph and the essay are quite similar in structure (结构)。 For example, the paragraph starts with either a topic sentence (主题句) or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay, the first paragraph sets up the topic focus (主题所在) Next, the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that discuss and support the ideas given in the introductory (引导的) paragraph. Finally, a concluding sentence (结束句) ——whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation——ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a concluding paragraph which ends the essay logically and satisfactorily. Although there are some exceptions (例外), most well written expository (说明文的) paragraphs and essays are similar in structure. 可以看出,在比较相同点的时候,常用到similarly,also,too,in the same case,in spite of the difference等这样的词语。 European Football and American Football Although European football is the parent of American football, the two games show several major differences. European football, sometimes called association football or soccer, is played in 80 countries, making it the most widely played sport in the world. American football, on the other hand, is popular only in North America (the United States and Canada)。 Soccer is played by eleven players with a round ball. Football, also played by eleven players in somewhat different positions (位置) on the field, is played with an elongated (拉长的) round ball. Soccer has little body contact (接触) between players and therefore needs no special protective equipment. Football, in which players make the greatest use of body contact to stop a running ball-carrier and his teammates, needs special protective equipment. In soccer, the ball is advanced toward the goal by kicking it or by butting (顶) it with the head. In American football, on the other hand, the ball is passed from hand to hand or carried in the hands across the opponent’s (对手) goal. These are just a few of the features which distinguish (区别) association and American football. 这是一篇用比较不同点的手法写的说明文。从文章中可以看出:however,on the other hand,in contrast,but,nevertheless等表示转折的词语常用来引导对不同点的比较。 4.定义法(definition) 定义法也是英语说明文中常用的写作手法,特别是在对具体事物概念进行说明时经常使用。定义法的基本要素是定义句。英语中常见定义句的模式是: 被定义对象is所属类别+限制性定语 可以看出,定义句中限制性定语越详细,定义就越精确,比如: A bat is a small mouse-like animal that flies at night and feeds on(以……为食品)fruit and insects but is not a bird. 其实,在英—英词典中,对英语单词的英文解释就是定义法的典型例子。比如,看看Longman词典对student和teacher的定义是很有意思的:A student is a person who is studying at a place of education or training. A teacher is a person who gives knowledge or skill to sb. as a profession (专业)。 5.顺序法(sequence of time, space and process) 顺序法是指按时间、空间或过程的顺序进行说明的一种写作手法。比如按照时间顺序介绍一个科学家的生平,用空间顺序阐述逐渐开发西部的重要意义,用过程顺序法解释葡萄酒的生产过程等等。 下面这篇学生作文就是用顺序法写成的: Coal Coal underwent (经受) many changes before it became the bright, brittle (脆的), black substance which we now use. During ancient times (在上古时代), when the earth enjoyed a very warm and wet climate, the land was covered with large forests and big plants. As time went on, the ground changed and began to sink (下沉) a little. These very large numbers of trees and vegetables received a deposit (沉淀) of sand and clay. This layer of sand and clay pressed upon the layer beneath and prevented it from contact with air. These trees and plants received the pres sure and changed its appearance. Generations after generations (几世纪后), as the ground kept gradually sinking, another layer of sand and clay was again deposited (积聚) above the layers already formed. A great pressure was thus exerted (作用) and the peat (泥煤) was changed into the black and brittle substance which is known as coal. Coal is a kind of mineral which is formed by nature as above stated. It is an important industrial material and is chiefly used as fuel. It is very valuable in the industrial world. The place where coal deposit is called a coal mine (煤矿)。 In China, coal mines are largely found in the north-west part of the country. Shanxi is a famous province for producing coal. It has the most coal of China. 6.分类法(classification) 分类法是将写作对象进行分类说明的一种写作手法。比如:的英国哲学家弗朗西斯·培根(Francis Bacon)在其脍炙人口的《谈读书》(Of Studies)一文中就用到了分类法: Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested, that is, some books are to be read only in parts, others to be read, but not curiously, and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books… 参考译文:书有可浅尝者,有可吞食者,少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之,有只须读其部分者,有只须大体涉猎者,少数则须全读,读时须全神贯注,孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读,取其所需摘要,但只限题材较次或价值不高者…… ——转摘自《英汉翻译教程》(张培基等) 可见,如果能够根据具体情况,选用合适的写作手法,就可为文章增添无穷的魅力。 除了上述提到的6种展开英语说明文主题的写作方法之外,还有因果法、归纳法等其他方法。但相比之下,对于中学生来说,上述6种方法是首先值得掌握的。另外必须指出的是:在一篇文章中往往是以一种写作手法为主,同时辅以其他写作手法。有时,甚至会几种写作手法混用而不分主次。因此,必须根据具体情况,选用合适的展开主题的写作手法,才能写出优秀的英语说明文。
division是什么意思 解析division的含义及用法
在体育中,division 通常指的是联赛的分组,如英超联赛、西甲联赛等。不同的 division 有不同的级别和水平,负责安排和管理相应的比赛和球队。
在军事中,division 是一个军队的基本编制单位之一,一般由几个旅组成。每个 division 都有自己的指挥官和作战任务,负责执行军队的作战任务。
2.5 体育中的 division
2.1 数学中的 division
逻辑学问题:为什么说“一年分为四季是一个正确的划分”这句话是错误的
首先要明白,逻辑学上的【划分(division)】实质上是和【分类(classification)】联系在一块的。除了逻辑学上的划分,我们还有另外一种“分”,就是把【整体分割成部分】的“分”。虽然都是“分”,但二者是可以明确区分开来。(我这里暂且将整体-部分式的“分”称为分割,以便和划分相区别;同时,分割的英文暂且选择separation,以便和division区别开来。当然,两种“分”也是有联系的,这个在最后我会说明。)如果我们将某A进行整体-部分式的分割,比如说分成A₁A₂A₃三个部分,我们可以说“A₁是A的一部分”,或者说“A₁包含在A中”。但是我们不能说“A₁是A。”或者说“A₁是A的一种”。我们如果将某B进行分类(划分),分成B₁B₂B₃,这时,我们说“B₁是B。”或者说“B₂是B的一种”等等。而整体部分式的分割是不可以这样说的。反过来,我们也不能说“B₁是B的一部分”(虽然我们有时候也可能会这样说,但说的实际上是后面的意思),我们只能说“B₁类是B类的一部分”或者“B₁类是B类的子类”,又或者“所有是B₁的个体所构成的集合是所有是B的个体所构成的集合的一部分”或者“所有是B₁的个体所构成的集合包含于所有是B的个体所构成的集合”或者“所有是B₁的个体所构成的集合是所有是B的个体所构成的集合的子集”。【例一】举个例子来说,我们可以将人的身体进行分类,可以分为健全的身体、有残疾的身体,等等。我们可以说,健全的身体、有残疾的身体都是身体。或者也可以说,健全的身体是身体的一种。然后我们不能说健全的身体是身体的一部分。【例二】我们也可以将人的身体进行分割,可以分成头、躯干、四肢等等。我们说头、躯干是身体的一部分。我们不能说头是身体,也不能说头是身体的一种,而只能说头是身体的一部分。【判别方法】所以,有一个简便的方法来判断一个操作究竟是分类还是分割:假设把A分成A₁A₂A₃。如果这是个分类,那么我们必须能够说A₁是A的一种;如果这是个分割,则我们必须能够说A₁是A的一部分。一年当然可以分为春、夏、秋、冬四季,但是这是不是分类(划分)呢?我们来看看,春天是一年的一种吗?夏天是一年的一种吗?显然都不是。因此这根本就不是个分类(划分)。但是我们为什么会觉得划分和分割这么相似呢?看来两者之间必定有某种联系,不然怎么那么容易混淆呢?是的,其实日常语言中,divide这个词既可以是对整体的分割,也可以是类别上的划分。我认为,逻辑上的划分原本就是从整体部分式的分割转义过去的,是“分”或者divide这个词用法上的扩展。我们学逻辑或者数学,都要学集合论,要学欧拉图或者文恩图。我们在判断“A是B的一种”是否正确的时候,会把所有是A的个体把握成一个整体,这个整体是一个抽象对象,称为A类(并且学过文恩图的人会把它设想或者表示成一个圆);把所有是B的个体也把握成一个整体,称为B类(也用一个圆来表示);然后看A类是否包含在B类里面。这种包含关系原本是一种抽象关系,但是用平面上的文恩图来表示,那么表示A类的那个圆形就在表示B类的那个圆形的内部(倘若A是B的一种),它们在空间上具有部分-整体关系,于是类(或者说集合)之间的包含关系也就成为一种特殊的部分-整体关系,说它特殊,是因为它不是具体对象的部分整体关系,而是类(集合)这种抽象对象之间的部分-整体关系。在这个意义上,我们来看分割和划分的关系。我们把一个时间或空间对象分割成若干部分(注意:并非真的像解剖那样在物理上进行切割),这些部分之间没有重叠,而且所有部分合起来就是那个整体。类似的,我们把一个类(集合)分成若干子类(子集),使得这些子类之间互不交叉(没有交集),且所有子类合起来(所有子集的并)就是原先那个类(集合)。如果我们把类(集合)之间的包含关系正式接受为一种部分-整体关系,那么也就须承认上面把一个类(集合)分成若干子类(子集)的操作也是分割的一种。但是我们现在还不能直接过渡到划分上,还不能说划分就是对类的分割。虽然划分确实和类的分割联系在一起:有划分就有类的分割,有类的分割就有划分。这里涉及到另两个重要的区分:专名(proper name)和通名(general name),具体名称(concrete name)和抽象名称(abstract name)。专名是指向某个固定的单个对象的名称,比如每个人的名字都是专名;而通名则可以分别用于多个对象,我们常用的大部分的名词都是通名。具体名称是指向具体事物的名称,具体事物是在时空中的事物;抽象名称是指称抽象对象的名称,抽象对象不在具体的时空当中,比如类、几何图形、概念、命题、性质。专名和通名都可以是具体的,也都可以是抽象的。这样我们就有具体的专名,抽象的专名,具体的通名,抽象的通名四种名称。比如“爱因斯坦”就是具体的专名,它指向的是爱因斯坦这一个具体的在时空中的个体;而“人”是个具体的通名,它指向的是在具体时空当中的个人,但是并不是特指某个固定的个体,而是许多个体都可以称作人;“人类”是个抽象专名,它指向的古往今来所有的个人所构成的整体;“类”是个抽象通名,它指向的是各种不同的类,但是并不指向某个固定的类。我们可以看出,任给一个通名
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